1907. Alliances and partnerships produce stability when they reflect realities and interests. A theory of wide-ranging importance in historical and political thought, elitism as applied to foreign policy seeks to expl, Entailment, Presupposition, and Implicature, https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/entangling-alliances, George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Counterclaims and Set-Offs against Sovereigns, Washington's Farewell Address (September 17, 1796). Since 1945, however, there have been only five cases of what might be characterized as U.S. entanglementthe 1954 and 1995-96 Taiwan Strait crises, the Vietnam War, and the interventions in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990sand even these cases are far from . Measured in terms of intensity of relations, in the 2010s Ukraine became the number one NATO partner by a large margin.32Branislav Miko, NATO between Exclusivity and Inclusivity: Measuring NATOs Partnerships, Czech Journal of International Relations 56, no. Unlike ad hoc coalitions of the willing, NATO allows for collective decision-making, tested procedures, interoperability, and the use of common assets. In case of a conflict in East Asia, the probability that allies would be directly pulled into combat operations is low (except perhaps for the case of South Korea, due to the aforementioned 1953 commitments by sixteen countries to defend the peace on the peninsula). For a good balance sheet of US alliances, see Hal Brands and Peter Feaver, What Are Americas Alliances Good For?, Parameters 47, no. While their NATO memberships dampen the risk of a full-blown war between them, the United States has been less willing to play a mediating role than it did during the Cold War.126Likewise, an improbable, but not farfetched, scenario calling for Washington to play a mediating role could involve South Korea and Japan. These alliances weren't the sole cause of World War I, as some historians . In sum, military ties are thickening globally. [ii] South East Asia Collective Defense Treaty (1954). Nor was it a given, more generally, that US alliances would survive the Obama and Trump eras, when attention given to most allies was less important than it had been in the past. I will compress them within the narrowest compass they will bear, stating the general principle, but not all its limitations.Equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political:peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none:the support of the state . See Bruno Tertrais, Article 5 of the Washington Treaty: Its Origins, Meaning and Future, Research Paper no. Recent spats between Turkey and its allies have led many wondering whether Ankara would, or should, remain a member of NATO. The new AUKUS trilateral security partnership set up in September 2021 brings together Canberra, London, and Washington. Strive to have friends, for life without friends is like life on . Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. Alliance Origins and Their Effect on the Outbreak of World War One The First World War began after a complex series of events, which had distinct roots that can be found in the foreign policies of European countries' governments. "Taking care always to keep ourselves by suitable establishments on a respectable defensive posture," he wrote, "we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emergencies.". . The United States has considerably expanded the list of its major non-NATO allies, which number nineteen today, up from five in the late 1980s, plus Taiwan. Partnership with the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Statement, North Atlantic Council Meeting in Ministerial Session in Copenhagen, June 6-7, 1991, NATO Online Library. The difference is qualitative more than quantitative: some security partners cooperate more than formal defense allies. 1 / 21. definition: military is the goal. Another uncertainty relates to the exact definition of protected territories, the centerpiece of security guarantees. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war in 1914, but this assessment misses the point. Instead of increased rigidity, it was, rather, the uncertainty of the alliances' cohesion in the face of a ''casus foederis'' that fostered a . To be sure, this has never been a simple thing: many borders are undefined or contested. Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of the Philippines, August 30, 1951. The most significant caveat of the majority of treaty-based commitments is the very notion of armed attack, the casus fderis of defense alliances. While the obligation is generally considered secondary given that most concerned countries are members of NATO, Article 42.7 was nevertheless activated by France after the terrorist attacks of November 2015 in Paris. March 16, 2022. This is also true for some bilateral defense commitments such as the Franco-Greek one of 2021, which includes the condition that both parties must jointly find that an armed aggression has taken place. In 1902, Italy negotiates a secret treaty with France in which it was agreed that Italy would remain neutral in the event that Germany attacked France. On top of these two agreements, Paris increasingly recognizes now that its nuclear deterrent has a de facto European dimension and thus protects its neighbors vital interests.36Emmanuel Macron, Speech of the President of the Republic on the Defense and Deterrence Strategy, February 7, 2020, https://www.elysee.fr/en/emmanuel-macron/2020/02/07/speech-of-the-president-of-the-republic-on-the-defense-and-deterrence-strategy. In 1961, the Soviet Union erected the most iconic image of the Cold War, the Berlin Wall, which physically divided the Western and Eastern Blocs of Germany's city of Berlin. The result is a network of interlocking defense relationships, to which an ever-thicker layer of new security groupings and quasi alliances is being added. In that Farewell Address, Washington warned against the peril of foreign entanglements. Causes of WW1: Franco-Russian Alliance. Yet this fear too seems overblown. 3. to make complicated; confuse. There is little evidence of a true clash of alliances in the Pacific that would pit what an author calls a JAUKUS (Japan and AUKUS countries) bloc against a RUCNDPRK (Russia, China and North Korea) one.120Artyom Lukin, JAUKUS and the Emerging Clash of Alliances in the Pacific,PacNet Commentaryno. There is no need for complacency. Reassurance is also instrumental in reducing the risk of a renationalization of defense policies. . Some European countries may end up involved in maritime security operations in the South China Sea, for instance, to secure vital arteries of global trade. During the war . "Alliances are at the center of the lively debate about US grand strategy, and that debate is more relevant than it has been in decades. The UK signed its own defense agreement with the UAE in 1996; the UK governments comments in Parliament suggest that London is committed to deterring threats or preventing aggression against the Emirates, and, in the event of such aggression taking place, to implementing the joint military plans which are judged appropriate for the defense of the UAE.57UK Parliament, Co-operation Accord (United Arab Emirates), Hansard (official report of debates) 286, Commons: November 28, 1996, Written Answers, Defense, https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/1996-11-28/debates/becc7cbf-c160-4d16-95f4-b2fbf024a1ef/Co-OperationAccord(UnitedArabEmirates). They are often seen as quasi-alliances even though they do not entail any defense commitments. It is harder to imagine that Russia could threaten Asian allies of the United States for their support of Europe than in the China or North Korean case. George Washington and in the early 19th-century Monroe Doctrine. The US-South Korea one is drafted along the same lines: an armed attack in the Pacific area on either of the Parties in territories now under their respective administrative control, or hereafter recognized by one of the Parties as lawfully brought under the administrative control of the other.91Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea, October 1, 1953, https://www.usfk.mil/Portals/105/Documents/SOFA/H_ Mutual%20Defense%20Treaty_1953.pdf. Would the European Union be ready to go to war against Ankara, especially its neutral and nonaligned members?124Five EU countries have, to various degrees, a neutral or nonaligned status and Denmark had an opt-out policy which it will abolish on July 1 following a referendum vote. 1 (2011), https://academic.oup.com/fpa/article-abstract/7/1/45/1795309; and Thorin M. Wright and Toby J. Rider, Disputed Territory, Defensive Alliances and Conflict Initiation,Conflict Management and Peace Science31, no. A classic case of this for the United States was Vietnam. Some felt such heavily armed arrangements would result in a balance of power, and therefore, peace. Then there are more complex cases. France and the United Kingdom, by virtue of their permanent membership of the UN Security Council and their roles in the Indo-Pacific region, would have specific reasons to participate in such scenarios. Contrary to common belief, the phrase "entangling alliances" was turned by Thomas Jefferson , not George Washington . The Washington Doctrine of Unstable Alliances, sometimes called the caution against entangling alliances, was an early realist guide for US foreign policy and the nation's interaction with others. See Deployments Cyprus, British Army (website). Composed of a bunch of puppet regimes in eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact was an honorable sentry for Moscow's paranoid central planners. Mounting tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, and war in Vietnam determined U.S. foreign policy in the 1960s. Finally, the Arab Leagues mutual defense commitment still exists on paper, though it has not proven very efficient since its signature in 1950.19Treaty of Joint Defense and Economic Cooperation between the States of the Arab League, June 17, 1950, https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/ arabjoin.asp. Catastrophes, when they come, are often the product of misperceptions. John Psaropoulous, Greece Ratifies Landmark Intra-NATO Defence Pact with France,. A Conversation With Jake Sullivan, Council on Foreign Relations, December 17, 2021, A. Trevor Thrall et al., Power, Profit or Prudence? . . entangling phrase. There was a variety of causes that influenced the beginning of World War I, but the primary causes consisted of three major crisis areas which eventually led to the creation of World War I: Balkan nationalism, entangling alliances, and militarism as welll as the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. 2 (2014), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0738894213503440. UN General Assembly Resolution 3314 (1974) defines it as the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity, or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations.93Elizabeth Wilmhurst, Definition of Aggression, General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX) of December 14, 1974, Audiovisual Library of International Law, https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/da/da.html. Triple Entente. In 1992, Russia forged the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan (three other ex-Soviet Republics later joined but then withdrew in 1999, when the treaty was renewed), a defense alliance despite its name. Branislav Miko, NATO between Exclusivity and Inclusivity: Measuring NATOs Partnerships, Czech Journal of International Relations 56, no. However, the date of retrieval is often important. We also call it foreign affairs policy. While the United States has the largest number of inherited security commitments that persist to this day, there are several others worth considering. There are now separate Australia-Japan-US and Korea-Japan-US defense forums.67US Department of Defense, Australia-Japan-United States Defense Ministers Meeting Joint Statement, July 7, 2020, https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2266901/australia-japan-united-states-defense-ministers-meeting-joint-statement/; and Japanese Ministry of Defense, JapanRepublic of Korea-United States Trilateral Ministers Meeting Joint Press Statement, November 17, 2019, https://www.mod.go.jp/en/d_act/exc/area/docs/2019/20191117_j-kor.html. And if war erupted somewhere, what would be the risks of escalation? Finally, the Biden administration has clearly confirmed that it would defend Taiwan against mainland China, rhetorically putting the island on a par with countries protected by treaty-based obligations.42David Brunnstrom, US Position on Taiwan Unchanged Despite Biden Comment: Official, Reuters, August 20, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asiapacific/us-position-taiwan-unchanged-despite-biden-comment-official-2021-08-19/. Significance: Entangling Alliances one of the five reason of World War 1. Atlantic Council US-India Digital Economy Task Force. The line should be clear enough to deter, but not to the point of ensuring the adversary he will not suffer from consequences if he acts below the line. All this helps explain why alliances endure today. Bruno Simma et al., Third Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 1409. Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. Such conflicts could, however, escalate quickly. A few years later, in 2011, Turkey and Azerbaijan concluded a defense pact.59Shahin Abbasov, Azerbaijan-Turkey Military Pact Signals Impatience With Minsk Talks: Analysts, Eurasianet (news site), January 18, 2011, https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-turkey-military-pact-signals-impatience-with-minsk-talks-analysts. After all, isnt the US Secretary of States own rock band called Coalition of the Willing? In some circumstances alliances may embolden member states to initiate disputes against nonmember states and be more likely to aggravate dispute initiation against member states.104Choong-Nam Kang, Capability Revisited: Allys Capability and Dispute Initiation,Conflict Management and Peace Science, 34, no. There are well-known objections to the multiplication of alliances, including free-riding (hence the classic burden-sharing debate within NATO, for instance) and overextension (the risk of an alliance being able to credibly uphold all its commitments). By 1914, Europe's six major powers were split into two alliances that would form the warring sides in World War I. Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente, while Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy joined in the Triple Alliance. Mexico, for its part, withdrew from the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistancethe Rio Treatyin 2002 to protest against US foreign policy. also one of the causes that made Britain explode (Britain was a powder keg at the time). This is the case for two of the most important ones: NATO and the CSTO. They apply to any aggression.74Mira Rapp-Hooper, Absolute Alliances: Extended Deterrence in International Politics (doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 2015), Columbia University Academic Commons (website), https://doi.org/10.7916/D85Q4TWX. Still, drawing red linesthe essence of security guaranteesis a form of art.95On the notion of red lines, see Bruno Tertrais, The Diplomacy of Red Lines,Recherches & Documents, no. China or North Korea could warn US allies to stay out by reminding them of the vulnerability of their countries to cyberattacks and missile strikeswhich, in turn, would force Paris or London to counter Bejings threats through deterrence. cms, https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2019/08/27/discours-du-president-de-la-republique-a-la-conference-des-ambassadeurs-1, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/61719, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/ diplomacy/article/3140798/russia-relationship-better-alliance-chinese-foreign-minister, https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/l/treaty/ collectivedefense/index.htm. When the USSR collapsed in 1991, so did this alliance. This definition of alliance also excludes collective security organizations such as the Organization for the Security and Co-operation in . South East Asia Collective Defense Treaty (with Protocol) of September 8, 1954, United Nations (website), The word entanglement is often used, but alliances by nature entangle the interests of their members. In 2005, the 54 members of the African Union signed an all-African Nonaggression and Common Defense Pact. US Reputation and International Politics(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017); and Alex Weisiger and Keren Yarhi-Milo, Revisiting Reputation: How Past Actions Matter in International Politics,International Organization69, no. A legitimate question mark could exist for Turkish behavior in recent years, but given the tensions between Ankara and its alliesnotably the United Statesit is unlikely that It played a role. Thomas Wilkins concurred with Khanna and wrote in 2012 that informal security arrangements (alignments) would be the future international security standard.6Thomas S. Wilkins, Alignment, not Alliance: The Shifting Paradigm of International Security Cooperation: Toward a Conceptual Taxonomy of Alignment,Review of International Studies38, no. These strat-egists argue that security relationships harm U.S. security by incentivizing allies and partners to take risky actions that threaten to draw the United States into conflict or by causing the United States to expand its definition So instead we seek out allies, even among strangers and wives, fellow patients who, if . Carl Bildt et al.,Survey: Western Public Backs Stronger Support for Ukraine against Russia, Atlantic Council, January 25, 2022, CSTO Joint Staff, Collective Rapid Reaction Forces of the CSTO,. A missile threat against US territory in North America would in turn compel NATO allies to express their solidarity with Washington and get involved. The treaty of mutual cooperation and security between Japan and the United States, January 19, 1960. Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea, October 1, 1953. 1. of, from, in, or characteristic of a country or language other than one's own: a foreign language. Two timelier questions stand out at this particular moment in world history: is this thickening web of alliances good or bad for global stability, and does it increase or decrease the risk of war? 6, no. Updated on January 28, 2020. Instead, U.S. leaders followed George Washington's advice to "steer clear of permanent alliance with any portion of the foreign world," a recommendation . Collective Security Treaty, Collective Security Treaty Organization. The Danger of Entangling Alliances. In addition, the four countries of the Bolivarian Alliance (Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Venezuela) announced their withdrawal in the early 2010s, although they never formally went further. All this suggests that allies do not get embroiled by mere virtue of a text or declaration: going to war would remain a political decision. Definitions by the largest Idiom Dictionary. It was given expression in the Farewell Address of Pres. Opinion polls show that overwhelming national majorities support their countrys NATO membership.47NATO Public Diplomacy Division, NATO Audience Research: Presummit Polling Results 2021, June 11, 2021, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ news_184687.htm. New Atlanticist is where top experts and policymakers at the Atlantic Council and beyond offer exclusive insight on the most pressing global challengesand the United States role in addressing them alongside its allies and partners. In fact, modern defense commitments are vaguer than they were in the past in terms of the anticipated allied response.115As an example, the Dual Alliance of 1879 committed Austria-Hungary and Germany to come down on Russia with the whole war strength of their empires. See The Dual Alliance Between Austria-Hungary and Germany October 7, 1879, The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library (website), accessed May 30, 2022. This conservative bias, with alliances providing brakes on escalation, means that the risk of a mechanical, chain-ganging worldwide escalation is of marginal concern. Those forged by the Soviet Union have disappeared. Still, the unprecedented contemporary web of alliances leaves many questions open as to how it would operate in wartime. Second, the early twenty-first century network of alliances and partnerships is not the equivalent to those of the twentieth century. As Beckley explains, in most conflicts, only a few allies were directly threatened and demanded US intervention. In fact, in recent years Moscow has started to use the words alliance or allied to qualify its relationship with Beijing.70Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan, Russia-China Strategic Alliance Gets a New Boost with Missile Early Warning System,Diplomat, October 25, 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/10/russia-china-strategic-alliance-gets-a-new-boost-with-missile-early-warning-system/. In 2008, Parag Khanna thought that states now operated in a world of alignments, not alliances.4Paragh Khanna,The Second World: Empires and Influence in the New Global Order(New York: Random House, 2008). As Russia invades Ukraine, China threatens Taiwan, Iran harasses the Gulf States, and Turkeys neighbors worry about Ankaras designs, it is a good time to reassess the validity of alliances for global security. Jefferson said that one of the "essential principles of our government" is that of "peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none." . Allies can also play a restraining role on enlargement, as demonstrated by the French and German refusals to offer a NATO Membership Action Plan to Georgia and Ukraine in 2008 and more recently in 2022 with Turkeys opposition to Finland and Swedens accession to NATO. Reuters, Inconceivable Australia Would Not Join US to Defend Taiwan: Australian Defence Minister, November 13, 2021, Japan, Australia Sign Defense Pact to Counter Chinas Rise,. 59, Pacific Forum International, December 22, 2021, https://mailchi.mp/pacforum/pacnet-59-jaukus-and-the-emerging-clash-of-alliances-in-the-pacific-1172630?e=5ea77c93b0. Author Jason W. Davidson examines these alliances to shed light on their nature and what they reveal about the evolution of American power. Since the Nuclear Posture Review of 2010, nuclear extended deterrence explicitly covers not only allies but also partnersa formulation kept deliberately vague. Alliances also have a pacifying effect: they damp the risk of open conflict among members. Beckley searches for cases of MIDs "in which alliances caused U.S . Almost all of these alliances are vague enough or contain sufficient ambiguity to avoid the protected party believing that its security guarantor would automatically use force to defend it. The same goes for concepts such as an alliance of democracies once promoted by US President Joe Biden.11Joe Biden, Democracy in an Age of Authoritarianism, Remarks by then-Vice President Biden, Copenhagen Democracy Summit, June 22, 2018, https://www.allianceofdemocracies.org/speech-by-joe-biden/. It is not immune to shocks, and in the twenty-first century it may only take a tweet by a US president for the belt to snap. The most egregious cases of U.S. overreach, however, have stemmed not from entangling alliances, but from the penchant of American leaders to define national interests expansively, to overestimate . Signatories were the United States, Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and the United Kingdom. military access (bases), capabilities, and legitimacy for common operations.81See Olivier Schmitt,Allies That Count: Junior Partners in Coalition Warfare(Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2018). In fact, standing alliances are proliferating (increasing in numbers), widening (welcoming new members), and deepening (reinforcing solidarity and cooperation). They show goodwill by siding with their protectors on contested issues. US Department of State, US Collective Defense Arrangements, (Treaty Affairs, Archived Content 2009-2017. Ananth Krishnan, Chinas Foreign Minister says U.S. This contributes to the freedom of action of guarantors. 4 (2000), https://www.jstor.org/stable/174649. 1 (1997): 156-179, doi: 10.1080/00396339708442901. The defensive nature of modern alliances provides stability and predictability in the international system.83To be sure, Russia claims that NATOs role in the ex-Yugoslavia or in Libya is the proof of its offensive nature, but such compellence (i.e., coercive) operations were designed to protect civilians, not, say, to invade a country. The Indo-Pacific region has also featured the ASEAN Defense Ministers Meeting (ADMM) since 2006, and the South Pacific Defense Ministers Meeting (SPDMM) involving Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tonga since 2013. entangling alliances. such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force. The TEUs Article 42.7 reads: shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power. Note also that the former refers to armed attack and the latter to armed aggression. Whether this is a production of the French translation or a deliberate broadening is debated. 2 (April-June 2018), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053168018779697. June 9, 2015. See Bruno Tertrais, Article 5 of the Washington Treaty: Its Origins, Meaning and Future, Research Paper no. Michael Beckley is Assistant Professor of Political Science at Tufts University. US nuclear weapons thus protect some fifty countries, or about one-quarter of the worlds total. The structure of dimeric DT has been extensively refined against data to 2.0-A resolution and a three-residue loop has been corrected as compared with our published 2.5-A-resolution structure. This website or its third-party tools use cookies, which are necessary for its functioning and required to achieve the purposes illustrated in the cookie policy. President Woodrow Wilson, claiming that "idealism is going to save the world," tried vainly to gain support for the League of Nations to keep the peace internationally. The consolidation of the Western system of alliances in Asia was made even stronger in 2021, when Australian and Japanese officials made it clearer that their countries would support the United States in a conflict over Taiwan.43Reuters, Inconceivable Australia Would Not Join US to Defend Taiwan: Australian Defence Minister, November 13, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/ world/asia-pacific/inconceivable-australia-would-not-join-us-defend-taiwan-australian-defence-2021-11-12/; Reuters, Japan Deputy PM Comment on Defending Taiwan if Invaded Angers China, July 6, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/japans-aso-peaceful-solution-desirable-any-taiwancontingency-2021-07-06/; and Jeffrey W. Hornung, Taiwan and Six Potential New Years Resolutions for the US-Japanese Alliance, War on the Rocks, January 5, 2022, https://warontherocks.com/2022/01/taiwan-and-six-potential-new-years-resolutions-for-the-u-s-japanese-alliance/. Meanwhile, in the Middle East, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) members signed a joint defense agreement in 2000, and since then have operationalized their Peninsula Shield common force. For countries that are members of both the European Union and NATO, Article 42.7 is a sort of backstop in case consensus could not be achieved within the North Atlantic Council (NAC) to trigger Article 5; and the France-Greece agreement is a backstop for Greece in case 42.7 could not be invoked. In 1915, Italy entered the war on the . . The one person who can relieve us is of course the sole person we cannot go to: the one we love. In fact, two scholars suggest that when seen in a historical perspective, US-based alliances tend to last twice as long as non-US-based ones, and that the main treaty-based American alliances forged after 1945 are historical outliers in terms of their duration.27Mark S. Bell and Joshua D. Kertzer, Trump, Psychology, and the Future of US Alliances, inAssessing the US Commitment to Allies in Asia and Beyond, ed. Beginning in the late 19th century, the social unrest in the Balkan States became the focal point of many European powers. Two Asian countries that are members of the Manila Pact are also covered by other US commitments (the Philippines by treaty, Thailand through the Rusk-Thanat Communiqu of 1962). the same time we are warned by the admonitions of history and the voice of our own beloved Washington to abstain from entangling alliances with foreign nations. Stephen Kinzer. Elizabeth Wilmhurst, Definition of Aggression, General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX) of December 14, 1974, Audiovisual Library of International Law, Albrecht Randelzhofer and Georg Nolte, Article 51, in, On the notion of red lines, see Bruno Tertrais, The Diplomacy of Red Lines,, In international law, armed attack authorizes self-defense and differs from mere aggression. The French language obfuscates the difference between the two by using the expression agression arme for armed attack., Brussels Summit Communiqu Issued by the Heads of State and Government Participating in the North Atlantic Council in Brussels., Dimitry Kochenov, The Application of EU Law in the EUs Overseas Regions, Countries, and Territories After the Entry into Force of the Treaty of Lisbon,. Policy in the Farewell Address of Pres has never been a simple thing: many borders are undefined contested... ( Britain was a powder keg at the time ) felt such heavily armed arrangements would in... It an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power Beckley explains in! Most significant caveat of the Philippines, August 30, 1951 entered War! Partnerships produce stability when they reflect realities and interests, http: //en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/61719, https:,. 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